भूगोल - सामान्य ज्ञान

The Universe

The Universe
 The universe is believed to be 50 billion years old. It consist of unimaginary huge space and stars. Stars are not uniformly scattered. They occur in clusters or galaxies.
 In the second century B.C. a Greek astronomer Ptolmy declared that all bodies revolves around the earth.
 Later on Copernicus gave the theory that the sun is the center of the Universe.

Big Bang theory
It is explained by a Belgium astronomer A.G. Lemeitre.
According to this theory billions of years ago cosmic matters i.e. the universe was in an extremely condensed state. A big explosion broke up the super dense ball and cast its fragments far out into space. It is from these speeding fragments of matter that our galaxy have been formed. The farthest pieces are flying the fastest.

Steady Sate Theory
It is exclaimed by Thoma Gold, Hermanbondi. It is know as the continuous creation theory. It states that as old galaxies move apart new galaxies are being formed from the new matter.

Pulsating Universe Theory
It is advocated by Dr. Alan. This theory states that the universe expand and contracts alternatively between period running into tens of billions of years.

Theory of geocentric universe was given by Ptolemy.
Almegest book was written by Ptolemy.

Stars
 Stars are clusters of clouds and gasses. It contracts under its own gravitational force. The gradual shrinking process of the huge ball initially called Protostar, goes on till the fusion reaction begins.
 The colour of the stars depend on the temperature of the stars.
 Red stars are cooler than white stars.
 White stars are cooler than blue stars.
 Yellow stars are comparatively hot.
 The stars which have consumed 10% of their fuel appears reddish because they grow in size are know as Red Giants.
 The light from stars travel through different moving layers in the space with different densities and temperatures. This leads to the twinkling of the stars.
 The brightest star in the sky is Sirius or Dog Star.
 Distance between Earth and Alpha Century is 4.3 light years.
 Parsec is the unit of measuring inter stellar distances. 1 Parsec = 3.26 light years.
 All stars rises in the East and sets in the West.
 Nebulae is the cloud of rarely found gasses which exists between stars and glows with the light of stars.
 Initial stage of star is known as Protostar
 Quaras are quasi stellar bodies emitting radio signals.

Black Hole or Neutron Stars
 It is a type of star whose density is very high. Because of this high density its gravitational pull become so excessive that even the light rays can’t escape from it. Thus it can’t be seen by an optical telescope.
 Supernovae – Are violent explosions of massive stars in which all but he inner core of the star is blown off. It leaves behind black holes or neutron stars.
 Black holes are detected by Radio telescope.

Galaxies
Galaxies are giant clusters of stars. There are three types of galaxies.
i. Elliptical Shaped Galaxy - consist of older stars.
ii. Spiral Shaped Galaxy - consist of bright and young stars
iii. Irregular shape galaxy
 Almost 75% of the galaxies are spiral shaped, 20% are elliptical and 5% are irregular shaped.
 The galaxy of which our solar system is a part is known as Milky Way. It is a spiral shaped galaxy.
 The nearest galaxy outside milky way is Megelton.
 Another well known galaxy is Andromeda.
 Milky way is a cluster of 150 billion stars. It is thicker in the middle and thins out at the edges. The sun which belongs to this galaxy is situated towards the North of central plain. All the stars in the milky way revolve around a centre. The galaxy is not uniformally bright.
 Nearest galaxies to earth are Larch, Maglanic clouds & Small Maglenic Clouds.

Constellation
 Is a closed group of stars which resemble the shape of an animal or human. Ursa Major, Great Bear, Orien etc. are constellations.
 There are 88 constellations.
 Orion, Great Bear, Pleides constellation of stars are seen during winter.
 Scorpio is seen during summers.
 Pole Star is the part of Ursa Major constellation.

Comets
 Comets are luminous bodies with a tail moving round the sun in elliptical or parabolic path.
 Elliptical comets are periodic while parabolic appears only once.
 The tail is made up of gasses and dust. It develops when comet approach the sun and recedes when the comet moves away from the sun.
 This tail always points away from the sun because of the repulsive force of the sun’s radiation.
 Haley Comet appears after 76 years. It was first seen in 467 B.C. It was last seen in 1986.
Sun
 Is a fixed type of star.
 It is the centre of the solar system.
 It is made up of extremely hot gasses mainly Hydrogen and Helium.
 Energy is produced in the sun by the process of nuclear fission.
 The stars closest of our solar system is known as Alfa Century or Proxima Century.
 The sun is moving at a speed of 250 km/sec.
 Sun takes about 250 years to complete one revolution round its centre. The period is called Cosmic Year.
 Sun completes one rotation in 25 days 9 hrs and 4 mins.
 It takes 8.3 mins. for the light to reach from sun to earth.
 The glowing surface of sun is called Photosphere.
 Above the photosphere is Chromospheres.
 The outer most portion is called Corona, which is visible only during eclipse.
 The visible light of the sun is made up of 7 colours VIBGYOR.
 Sun light also contain Ultra Violet Rays and Infra Red Rays.
 Ultra Violet rays have wave length shorter than the visible spectrum of VIBGYOR.
 U.V. Rays are harmful for human beings and can cause skin cancer.
 U.V. Rays are mostly absorbed by Ozone Layer present in the upper atmosphere.
 The rays having larger frequency visible spectrum are known as Infra Red Rays. These rays are hot and are responsible for the heating effect.
 The average distance between the earth and the sun is 149 million Kms.
 The maximum distance being 152 Kms called Aphelion - 4th July
 The minimum distance 147 Kms know as Perihelion -5th January.
Sun spots
 At certain point on the sun’s surface the temperature is 4500 degree. These are the points from where extremely hot gasses escape in to the space. They work as the safety value of the sun.
 Sun spots were discovered first of all by Galileo.
 These spots have intense magnetic field.
 The number of spots vary from year to year with a periodic cycle of 11 years.
 This periodicity is known as sun spot cycle.
 The expected life of the sun is 10 billion years.

 Asteroids are small planets moving between orbits of Mass and Jupiter in a belt. Largest asteroid is Ceres.
 Meteoroids are small bodies of mass which become luminous by friction on entering earth’s atmosphere they are popularly known as shooting stars.

Solar System
 The solar system consist of Sun, Asteroids, 9 Planets & 32 Satellite.

Mercury - Closet to sun, smallest planet, No satellite, weak magnetic field, fastest moving, completes one revolution in 88 days.

Venus - closest to the earth, known as sister planet of the earth because of the similarity in physical fabric of the planet. It is the brightest, hottest planet known as morning star or evening star. It rotates in a clock wise direction. That is from east to west which is contrary to the motion of most other planets. Venus is named after the Roman Goddess of beauty.
Venus has an atmosphere in which carbon dioxide gas is found in plenty. This Co2 gas causes the green house effect & accumulates heats on Venus. Therefore Venus is the hottest planet.
Venus increases and decreases like Moon in size.

Mars – also known as planet with red spots. Known as world of valleys and volcanoes. It has two satellites Phobos (fear) and Deimos (terror). It has polar ice caps like earth. Its axis is tilted.

Jupiter – is the largest planet in the solar system. It is 11 times larger than the earth. It has 16 satellites. Ganymede, one of its satellite is the largest satellite in our solar system. Recently shoe-maker levy- 9 comet collided with it.

Saturn – is the 2nd largest planet known for its cosmos rings, magnetic fields, 23 satellites which is the maximum no of satellite any planet has. It is the slowest moving planet & completes one revolution in 30 years. Discovered by Galileo. Its biggest satellite is known as Titan.

Uranus - is not visible to naked eyes and was the first planet to be discovered telescopically by William Hershel in 1781. Like Venus it also rotates clock wise and has 15 satellites.

Neptune – It was discovered by J.G. Galle in 1846. It completes one rotation in 165 years because of inter-section of its orbit with that of Pluto it became the farthest planet for a temporary period of 20 years. Completes one revolution in 165 years has 8 satellites.

Pluto – is the smallest, coldest planet which will also become farthest in March 1999. It has 1 satellite. It is named after roman god of Underworld.

 The four inner most planet in the Solar system namely Mercury, Venus, Earth & mars are known as terrestrial planets. Because they have a compact rocky surface like the earth.
 Four other planets name Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus & Neptune are known as Jovian Planets as they have similarity with Jupiter.

Hallos
Are beautiful rings of colored light around sun & moon. They are caused by the reflection of light by ice crystals in the atmosphere.

Earth
 Earth is the 3rd planet placed between Venus & Mars.
 The shape of the earth is Oblate Spheroid, i.e., it bulges out at the equator and it flattened at the poles.
 The reason for flattening the pole is that the rotation of earth develops outward a centrifugal force which is maximum at the equator.
 The equatorial diameter – 12756 kms.
 The Polar diameter - 12714 kms.
 Circumference - 510,100,570 kms.
 The speed of revolution is 107220 kms.
 Geoid is the theoretical shape of the earth ignoring its surface irregularities.
 Earth rotates from West to East in anti clock wise direction. It completes one rotation in 24 hrs w.r.t. sun. – This time period is known as SOLAR DAY.
 Earth completes one rotation w.r.t. any fixed star in 23 hrs 56 mins 4 sec. This time period is known as SIDERIAL DAY.
 Simultaneous with the rotation, the earth also moves round the sun known as Revolution.
 Earth completes one revolution in 365 days 5 hrs 48 mins and 45 secs.
 Earth revolves around the sun in a fixed path which is elliptical in shape and is known as ORBIT.
 70% of the total surface area of the earth is covered with water called as Hydrosphere.
 29% of the area is land portion and is known as Lithosphere.
 The average thickness of Lithosphere is 60 Km.
 The crust layers comprises of rocks, rich in Silicon and Aluminium – SIAL
 Below SIAL lies MENTAL upto a depth of 2900 kms it consists of SIMA i.e. Silicon and Magnesium.
 The core of the earth consist of metal in liquid form. It has a radius of 3400 Km. As Nickel and Iron are dominant in the core called NIFE.
 NIFE accounts for the magnetism of the earth.
 Six most abundant elements in the crust are
Oxygen 49.8%, Calcium & Sodium in smaller quantities.
Silicon 26.03%
Iron 4.12 %
ROTATION
 Days and Nights are formed as a result of the rotation of the Earth. Another important effect of rotation is that winds and currents change their direction. They turn towards right in Northern Hemisphere and towards Left in Southern hemisphere. This law is given by Ferrel so it is known as Ferrel’s Law.
 Change of seasons occur because of revolution of the Earth.
INCLINATION
 The two hemisphere experiences summer when they are in the front of sun and winter when they are away from the sun.
 The axis of the earth is an imaginary line passing through the centre of the earth.
 The axis of the earth always points in the one direction in the space.
 Earth spins round its axis which remain inclined at an angle of 661/2o to the plane of its orbit.
 The ends of the axis are called poles one is North Pole and other South Pole.
 Summers are hotter because summer days are longer than night. During day time earth absorbs heat from the sun and during night it radiates heat. Since days are longer the earth absorbs more heat and is able to radiate less heat. Heat accumulates and makes summer hotter.

 Tropics are the turning points from where the sun starts reverse journey. 231/2o North of equator is known as Tropic of Cancer and 231/2o south is known as Tropic of Capricorn.
SOLSTICE
 Is a date when sun shines over any tropic.
 Sun shines vertically over Tropic of Capricorn on 22nd December – it lies in Southern hemisphere, as a result there is summer solstice in the southern hemisphere and winter solstice in Northern Hemisphere.
 Sun shines vertically over Tropic of Cancer on 21st June – it lies in Northern hemisphere, as a result there is summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and winter solstice in Southern Hemisphere.

 Equator represent imaginary line passing round the earth midway between north and south pole. It thus divide the earth in two equal halves i.e., Northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere.
 Latitude is the angular distance from equator. They are the parallel liens to the equator. The latitude of equator and as we move towards poles the latitude rises. It is maximum i.e. 90o
 Arctic Circle is the circle drawn at 231/2o North Pole.
 Antarctic Circle is the circle drawn at 231/2o South Pole.
 Meridians are imaginary lines drawn on the global map connecting the two poles. There are 360 meridians in all. For the sake of convenience the meridians passing through Greenwich is known as Prime Meridian. The distance between two successive meridian is 111 Kms and there is a time difference of 4 minutes.
 Longitudes are equidistant lines drawn east to west of Greenwich meridian. They denote angular distances of a place east or west of the Prime meridian.
 Torrid Zone – Tropic zone : The area between 231/2o North and South of equator ie. Between the poles the tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn. This is the hottest zone since the rays of sun are nearly perpendicular than in any other zone.
 Frigid zone : The area between the North pole and Arctic circle is known as North frigid zone and between South pole and Antarctic Circle is known as South Frigid Zone.
 Temperate Zone : lies between 661/2o from poles. The region between tropic of Cancer and Arctic circle is known as North Temperate Zone.
 The places within the Arctic circle and Antarctic circle remain in light for some period during their respective summer. There is a day of 24 hrs. This phenomenon can be seen at places on North and South pole. The places from where this phenomenon can be seen include Norway, North Russia, Greenland etc.

EQUINOX
 Is the position when sun rays falls vertically over equator making the duration of days and nights equal through out the globe.
 21st & 22nd March, which is know as Spring Equinox.
 22nd and 23rd September called Autumn Equinox.

Eclipses
Lunar Eclipse
 The earth rotates round the sun and the moon (a natural satellite of the earth) moves round it. Many times the earth comes between sun and moon. Since all bodies in the solar system take light and heat from the sun. Earth causes its shadow on the moon. This is known as Lunar Eclipse.
 As the earth the moon and the sun are in the same plane the lunar eclipse occur only on a full moon day.
Solar eclipse
 When moon comes between the sun and earth, it causes its shadow on the earth known as Solar eclipse. It happens only on a new moon day.

Tides
Is the periodic rise and fall of sea water. The rise and fall occur alternatively twice a day. The tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on earth’s surface including the sea water. When moon and earth revolves around each other a centrifugal force is produced. Tides are caused twice a day.
Spring Tide
 When sun and moon are in the same line they pull earth gravitationally in the same direction. The combined pull causes a high tide known as Spring Tide.
Neap Tides
 When sun and moon are at right angle the gravitational pull is exerted in a opposite direction and tide’s caused are low. There are called Neap Tides.


Uses of tides
 No delta is formed at the mouth of the river they remain navigable.
 Sea water does not freeze .
 Sea level do not rise
 Tides carry away the mud brought by the rivers.

 Winds having as speed between 56 & 72 kms is known as gale.
 Winds having a speed of 72 to 112 kms are known as Storm

 Rift valley is a long & Narrow valley formed by sinking of a portion of the earth.
 A vast accumulation of ice which moves slowly till it melts and forms a river is known as Glaciers.

 Ice Berg is a large mass of ice which is detached from Glacier & keeps floating in the sea.

 Geyser is a fountain of hot water issuing from a hole which extend deep into the earth crust. It also contains minerals.

 The local time of the place is 12.00 noon when sun shines vertically overhead. It varies from GMT @ of 4 mins for 1o change in longitude.

 Greenwich Mean time (GMT/World Time) is U.K’s standard time. It is based on the local time of the Prime Meridian.

 Standard time is the local time of a place used through out the country.

 Indian Standard Time is local time of the place near Allahabad (Mirzapur) situated at 881/2o East longitude.

Lines
 COUNTOUR LINE : are lines joining places of equal heights above the sea level on a map.
 ISOTHERMS : are lines connecting places of equal temperature.
 ISOHELS : are lines connecting places of equal sunshine.
 ISOLATES : are lines joining places of equal rainfall.
 ISOHALINES : are lines joining places of equal sea salinity.
 International date line : 180o meridian is called as International date line. When ships cross this line while going towards east they add a day and while going towards west they omit one day i.e. count the same date again.

 Durand Lind : boundary line between India and Afghanistan.
 Mc Mohan Line : boundary line between India and China.
 Red Cliff Line : boundary line between India and Pakistan.
 Snow Line : Is the line beyond which snow never melt. It varies according to altitude.
 17th parallel line between India & Pakistan has claimed by Pakistan
Instruments

 Hygrometer – used to measure Relative Humidity.
 Hydrometer – used to measure density of milk.
 Barometer – used to measure atmospheric pressure.
 Seismograph – used to measure earthquake.
Rocks
Igneous rocks – are formed by the cooling of Molten lava or magma. They are also known as primary rocks almost 95% of the earth crust is made up of Igneous rocks. Eg. Granite, Basalt, Quartz.

Sedimentary rocks – are formed by material which has accumulated as a result of various process such as deposited by river, wind etc. Eg. Chalk & Lime stone.

Metamorphic rocks – are formed from Igneous rocks or sedimentary rock by heat pressure or action of water. Eg. Limestone is converted in marble, sandstone is converted into quartzite etc.

Weathering: is breaking up or disintegration of rocks in situ. Chief agents are temperature, air pressure, rain etc.

 Rift Valley is a long and narrow valley formed by sinking of a portion of the earth.
 Glaciers is a vast accumulation of ice which moves slowly till it melts and forms a river.
 Ice Berg is a large mass of ice which is detached from Glacier and keeps floating in the sea.
 Apogee - point in any satellite’s orbit when it is farthest from earth. Moon – 152 million kms.
 Perigee – point in the orbit of satellite’ orbit when it is nearest from earth. Moon – 147 million kms.

India
 India is the 7th largest and 2nd most populous country in the world.
 Population of India is more than 1000 million.
 It has 2.4 % of land resources of the world & almost 16% of the total population of the world.
 It is bound by the great Himalayas in the north.
 It stretches towards South with the Bay of Bengal on the East and the Arabian Sea on the West.
 It lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. Tropic of Cancer passes through the centre of India.
 The Main lands of India lies between 8 degree 4 minutes & 37 degree 6 minutes North of equator and 68 degree 7 minutes and 97 degree 24 minutes east of Greenwich.
 Distance from North to South is 3214 km
 Distance from East to West is 2933 km.
 Length of coast line in 7516.6 km.
 Length of land frontiers 15200 km.
 Total area is 82,87,263 km.
 According to theory of continental drift the Indian Peninsula was part of Ancient continent part known as Gondwanaland , situated near South Pole from which it broke away and drifted Northward. The Indian sub-continent consist of 3 structural continent.

1. The Great Mountain wall of the North
2. The Northern Plains.
3. The Peninsular India.

 India has several mountain ranges, chief among them are The Himalayas, The Vindiyala, The Satpuras, The Aravalies, The Western Ghats and The Eastern Ghats.
 K2 or Godwin Austin of Karakoram Range is the highest Mountain peak of India, it has a height of 8611 meters.
 The northern most range is known as the Great Himalayas or Himadari.
 The Peer Panjal lies in Kashmir and Khaula Khar in Jammu belong to middle Himalayas.
 Shipkila pass is located in Tibet.
 Nathula is located in Sikkim connects India and Lahasa.
 Bomdila pass lies in Arunachal Pradesh.
 Gurushikhar on the habbu hills is the highest peak of Aravalies (Rajasthan).
 India is the 4th largest consumers of fertilizers.

Rivers of India can be divided into two groups.
 Himalayan Rivers
 The rivers of Peninsular India.

 The Himalayan Rivers are generally snow fed and continue to flow throughout the year. The main river systems are

 The Indus System – the Indus rises form the spring of Sengge Khabab which is located about 100 km North of Mansarovar. It flows North West for 200 km in Tibet before entering Kashmir. It is about 2900 km in length, large part of Indus basin in India lies in J&K, Himachal Pradesh & Punjab. Its main tributaries are Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jehlum.

 The Ganga System – The Ganga is over 2500 km long. The Bhagirathi which is the main headwater of Ganga rises form Gangotri Glacies at Gomuk, an ice cave. At Devprayag the Alakhnanda joins Bhagirathi. Alakhnanda rises from Alka Puri Glacier. Mandakhni which is fed by Melted water of Ghorabari Glacier also joins them than this combine water taken the name Ganga. The tributaries of Ganga are Yamuna, Ghagar, Gomti, Kosi, Sone, Damodar and Gandhak.

 At Raj Mahal hills Ganga is divided into two parts. Hugli which enters bay of Bengal. The other part which flows through Bangladesh is called Padma after meeting Bharamputra in South Bangladesh another river Meghna meets the main stream and than the joint stream is known as Meghna.

 Yamuna is the most important tributary of Gangs it rises from Yamnotri Glacier which joins Ganga at Allahabad on right bank. Tributaries of Yamuna are Chambal, Betwa and Ken.

 The Bharamputra rises in Tibet from Chema Yung dung Glacier near Mansarovar. It is slightly larger than Indus it flows in Tibet for 1250 km and is known as Tangspo. In Arunachal padesh it is known as Dihang. After confluence of Lohit, Dihang, and Manas it is known as Bharamputra. In the Northern Bangladesh before meeting Ganga it is known as Jamuna.

 Nearly 70% of the people of India are dependant on agriculture. In India there are two cropping seasons
1. Kharif from July to October
2. Rabi from October to March.

 Wheat : Its plant require cool climate in the beginning and hot weather at the time of harvesting. It needs an annual rainfall of 20 inches to 30 inches. Clay soil is the most favorable soil. Largest producer is UP.

 Sugarcane : India is the largest sugarcane producing county in the world. It accounts for nearly 37% of the total world’s production. UP is the largest producer.

 Tea : India is largest tea producing country but it is being closely followed by China & Srilanka. Tea is grown on mountain slopes and requires at least 60 inches rain fall, stagnant water spoils the tea plant so step cultivation is resorted to. Largest producer is Assam.

 Coffee – requires warm, moist climate and a height of 1500-2500 feet with 60 inches rainfall. Largest producer Karnataka.

 Tobacco – India is second largest producer after USA and the largest consumer of Tobacco largest producing state is A.P.

 Ground nut largest producer Gujrat
 Cotton largest producer Maharastra.
 Jute largest producer West Bengal.
 Rubber largest producer Kerela.

 Mount Everest is the highest peak in the World located in Nepal and Tibet - 8848 Mts.

 Sri Lanka is separated by India by a narrow channel of water formed by Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar.

 State rich in Sandalwood Karnataka
 Gold Mine Panna Madhya Pradesh
 Gold Mine Kolar Karnataka


Research Institute & Centers.

1. Central Fuel Research Center - Dhanbad (Bihar)
2. National Physical Laboratory - New Delhi.
3. Central Electronics Engineering Center - Pilani
4. National Institute of Oceanography - Panaji (Goa)
5. Central Salt and Marine Chemical Center - Bhavnagar (Gujrat)
6. Indian Institute of Petroleum - Dehradun (UP)
7. Central Patato Research Institute - Shimla(HP)
8. Central Dairy Research Institute - Karnal
9. National Chemical Laboratory - Pune (Maharastra)
10. Central Rice Institute - Cuttak
11. Indian Institute of Soil research - Bhopal (MP)
12. Central Leather Research Institute - Chennai (TN)
13. Central Drug Research Institute - Lucknow (UP)
14. Central Food Technology Research Institute - Mysoor (Karnataka)
15. Central Building Research Institute - Rudke (UP)
16. Central Road Research Institute - Delhi
17. Central Mining Research Institute - Dhanbad
18. National Aeronautical lab - Banglore (Karnataka)
19. National Meteorological lab - Jamshedpur
20. Atomic Energy Commission - Mumbai
21. Bhabha Atomic Research Center - Traumbay
22. High Altitude Research lab - Gulmargh.
23. Electronic Cooperation of India - Hydrabad
24. Indian Rare Earth’s ltd. - Alwaye (Kerala)
25. Institute of Nuclear Physics - Calcutta.
26. Tata Institute of fundamental research - Mumbai
27. Uranium Corporation of India. - Jadoguda (Bihar)
28. Indian Cancer Research Institute - Mumbai
29. National TB Institute - Bangalore
30. Indian scientific satellite project - Bangalore
31. Indian Space Research Organisation - Bangalore
32. Satellite Launch Vehicle Project - Thriruvantapuram
33. Space Application Centre - Ahmedabad
34. Space Commission - Bangalore
35. Sri Harikota Range - Andhra Pradesh
36. Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station - Thrivanantapuram
37. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre - Thrivanantapuram

Our National Parks.

1. Kaziranga National Park - Assam (Rhinos)
2. Manas Sanctuary - Assam (Wild Buffaloes)
3. Hazari Bagh Sanctuary - Bihar
4. Gir National Park - Gujrat (Lions)
5. Bandhipur Sanctuary - Karnataka
6. Chandraprabh sanctuary - Varanasi (UP)
7. Korbet National Park - U.P.
8. Ghanna Bird Sanctuary - Rajasthan
9. Jaldapara Sanctuary - West Bengal.
10. Kanha National Park - M.P.
11. Mudumalai Sanctuary - Tamil Nadu
12. Rangan Thithu Bird Santuary - Karnataka
13. Periyar Sanctuary - Kerela (Elephants)
14. Shivpuri National Park - M.P.
15. Sunderbans Sanctuary - West Bengal
16. Vedan thangal Bird Sanctuary - Tamil Nadu
17. Indira Priyadarshan Sanctuary - Delhi.
18. Dudhawa National Park - UP.
19. Sariska Sanctuary - Rajasthan (Bird shooting)
20. Dachigam National Park - J & K.

Our Multipurpose Projects
Dams State Rivers
1. Nagarjun Sagar Dam AP Krishna
2. Gandhak Project Bihar & Nepal
3. Tunghbadhara Project AP & Karnataka
4. Kosi Project Bihar
5. Karabara Project Gujarat Tapti
6. Ukai Gujarat Tapti
7. Mahi project Gujarat
8. Chambal Project MP & Rajasthan
9. Hirakund Project Orissa Mahanadi
(Longest dam)
10. Bhakda Nangal Project Punjab Satluj
(It is the biggest Multipurpose Project)
(It is the highest State Gravity Dam)

11. Korba Project MP
12. Koyna Project MP
13. Talchar Project Orissa
14. Damodar Valley Project Bihar & WB
(India has signed an agreement with Bangladesh for sharing the resources)
15. Rihand Project UP
16. Tehri Dam UP Bhagirathi.
17. Sqlal Project J&K Chenab
18. Theim Dam Punjab Ravi
19. Marttur Dam TN
20. Almattin Dam Karnataka
21. Ram Ganga Project UP Ganga
22. Faraka Project WB Ganga
23. Chukka Project Bhutan Vankchu
24. Eduki Kerela (developed with the help of Canada)
25. Shri Shalin Project AP Krishna
26. Kalindi Project Karnataka

Power, Steel & Nuclear Projects
Plants State
1. Dugapur Stell Plant - West Bengal – help of UK
2. Kojentric Power Plant - Karnataka
3. Tarapur Power Plant - Maharastra
4. Kota Power Plant - Rajasthan
5. Narora Power Plant - UP
6. Kalpakam Power Plant - TN
7. Kega Power Plant - Karnataka
8. 1st Nuclear reactor - Apsara - Bombay
9. Cyrus Nuclear Reactor - Traumbay
10. Zerlina Nuclear Reactor - Traumbay
11. Purnima Nuclear Reactor - Traumbay
12. Dhruva Nuclear Reactor - Traumbay
13. Kamini Nuclear Reactor - Traumbay

City River
1. Agra Yamuna
2. Allahabad Ganga
3. Kolkata Hugli
4. Jamshedpur Sawarn Rekha
5. Haridwar Ganga
6. Nashik Godawri
7. Sri Nagar Jelum
8. Surat Tapti
9. Ludhian Satluj
10. Lucknow Gomti
11. Vijaywara Krishna
12. Patna Ganga
13. Shri Ranga Patnam Cuveri
14. Jabalpur Narmada

Largest Producers
1. India – Mica, Groundnut, Jute, Tea.
2. Russia – Copper, diamond, Graphite, Iron ore, Petroleum products, Barley, potato, wheat, cement, crude steel, fertilizers, synthetic rubber, oats, timber.
3. USA – Aluminum, coal, natural gas, platinum, salt, phosphate, uranium, maize, soybeans, tomatoes, meat.
4. Australia – Bauxite, wool
5. South Africa – Gold
6. Italy – Mercury, Sulfur,
7. Canada – Nickel ore, zinc ore, newsprint.
8. Peru – Silver
9. Brazil – Coffee, oranges
10. China – Cotton, millet, rice, tobacco.
11. Malaysia – Rubber.
12. Japan – Silk, merchant vessels, passenger cars, fish, grapes.

Types of cultivation

1. Sedentary cultivation – also called settled cultivation, it is the practice of continued us e of land year after year i.e., normal practice.

2. Shifting cultivation – under this land is used for a few years until the fertility level drops when the farmer moves on to a new plot of land. Practiced mostly by tribal people, it is called Jhoom in Assam, Ponam in Kerala, Podu in Andhra Pradesh . Being highly wasteful a practice it is discouraged.

3. Terrace cultivation – In mountain areas cultivation is done on terraced fields in the same manner as settled cultivation in terms of land use. Terraces are made to check the rat eof soil erosion on steep slopes.

4. Wet farming – This is the practice of farming with the help of irrigation when the amount of rainfall fall short of requirement. Rice and Sugarcane are typical crops of this system of cultivation.

5. Dry cultivation – is done in areas where there are no irrigation facilities.

6. Crop rotation – This is the practice of growing different crops in succession so that the soil remains fertile. The rotation of crops may take 1 year or a number of years.

7. Multiple farming – Cultivation of crops and raising of cattle simultaneously is called mixed farming. This term is also used to denote the practice of growing two or more crops on the same plot of land.


Ports

Major Ports on the West Coast.

1. Kandla - Gujarat
2. Bombay - Maharastra
3. Marmagoa - Goa
4. New Manglore - Karnataka
5. Cochine - Kerala
6. Jawahar lal Nehru Port - Near Bombay

Major Ports on the East Coast.

1. Toticorin & Madras - Tamil Nadu
2. Vishakhapatnam - Andhra Pradesh
3. Paradip - Orissa.
4. Calcutta Haldia - West Bengal

1. Among major ports Bombay handles maximum traffic. It is natural harbor. It handles over 1/5th of the total traffic of ports. Mostly petroleum products and dry cargo.

2. Kandla is a tidal port and a free trade zone has been setup here. Important traffic handled are crude oil, petroleum products, edible oil, food grains, salt, cotton etc.

3. Marmagoa occupies 5th position in terms of total quantum of traffic handled from new Manglore iron ore of Kandremukh being exported, other items are petroleum products, fertilizers etc.

4. Cochin is the natural harbor dealing in fertilizers, petroleum and general cargo.

5. Tuticorin handles mainly coal, salt, edible oil, dry cargo and petroleum products

6. Madras is the 2nd largest port in the volume of traffic handled. Important itmes are petroleum products, crude oil, fertilizers, iron ore and dry cargo.

7. Vishakhepatnam is the deepest port and outer harbor has been developed for exporting iron ore and a birth for cured oil is located here.

8. Calcutta is a riverine port handling diversified commodities.

9. Paradeep handles iron ore and some quantities of coal and dry cargo.

10. Jawahar Lal Nehru Port is equipped with model facilities having mechanised container births for handling dry bulk cargo and service births.